L.M.Whitehouse Science Reviews - Biology, 2024, 3(4), 24-30

The effect of thermal stress on fish development: a

mini-review

L.M.Whitehouse PhD, Independent Researcher, France

ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0001-5385-7591

Scopus: https://www.scopus.com/authid/detail.uri?authorId=57195605595

DOI: https://doi.org/10.57098/SciRevs.Biology.3.4.3

Received October 18, 2024. Revised November 05, 2024. Accepted November 08, 2024.

Abstract: Projected temperature increases are predicted to significantly affect fish populations globally,

impacting fish recruitment processes and altering population distribution. Fish embryos are perhaps at the most

risk from temperature changes due to their sessile nature and overall sensitivity to temperature changes which

could impact how well a fish population performs in a changing world. Research has shown that temperature

can alter developmental trajectories, induce damage and abnormalities, increase development, and early

hatching, and reduce survival. Other studies have shown that exposure to thermal stress can prime stress

responses and result in changes in metabolic enzyme activity that persists post-hatch. Moreover, exposure to

fluctuating temperature, which most closely mimics natural environments, can have a protective effect,

increasing thermotolerance and survival while appearing to have no impact on developmental processes or

hatching rate. Understanding how these early life stages respond to thermal stress and fluctuations is important

for predicting how fish populations will respond to climate change.

Keywords: Fish, embryos, thermal stress, fluctuating temperatures, development, physiology

Introduction

Climate change is leading to an increase in global

water temperatures which is having a significant im-

pact on fish populations (Pörtner and Peck, 2010). As

ectotherms, fish are particularly vulnerable to temper-

ature changes; the ambient environmental tempera-

ture determines their body temperature (Jeyachandran

et al., 2023). As a result, rising water temperatures are

influencing the abundance and distribution of fish spe-

cies globally, and having a significant impact on the aq-

uaculture industry (Islam et al., 2022; Stuart-Smith,

2021).

Embryonic and larval stages are more sensitive

to temperature changes than juveniles and adults

(Rombough, 1997), since warming temperatures im-

pact fish development by changing the timing of em-

bryonic development and the formation and function

of key tissues and structures (Koumoundouros et al.,

1999). An increase in the temperature of the develop-

mental environment accelerates developmental pro-

cesses which can result in early hatching and mismatch

with environmental conditions for feeding. Moreover,

changes in developmental processes can result in

abnormalities that negatively impact the fish’s chance

of survival (Pepin, 1991).

This short review will assess what we know

about the impact of temperature on fish develop-

ment. An understanding of how temperature im-

pacts fish development is crucial to developing

management practices and conservation efforts for

fish species considering increasing global tempera-

tures.

Embryological development

Fish embryonic development is complex and

varies from species to species. Some species lay eggs

on the bottom of a river, lake or close to shore, some

make nests, and for some fish, their eggs are sus-

pended in open water (Bessa et al., 2022; Prichard et

al., 2017; Yohannan, 1998). Eggs that are produced

by warm water fish often have a short developmen-

tal time, whereas eggs produced by fish that live in

cool waters can take months to develop. These eggs

laid in cool waters are often deposited under the

cover of ice and then hatch in the spring (Kar-

jalainen et al., 2015). These differences mean that

Science Reviews - Biology, 2024, 3(4), 24-30 L.M.Whitehouse

warming temperatures are likely to impact fish de-

velopment differently and could perhaps have

more chance to impact cold-water-adapted fish that

have traditionally taken longer to develop.

Studies to date have demonstrated that expo-

sure to increased temperatures during develop-

ment can result in damaged zygotes, cellular de-

formities, damaged yolk sac, and low hatching suc-

cess (Ashaf-Ud-Dulah et al., 2021; Clarkson et al.,

2020; Linares-Casenave et al., 2013; Wang and Tsai,

2000). Embryos are particularly sensitive to temper-

ature fluctuations during the cleavage stages, which

occur during the early developmental period fol-

lowing fertilization (Krone et al., 2003; Werner et al.,

2003). For example, incubation of Solea senegalensis

eggs at temperatures above 18 °C resulted in the ap-

pearance of deformities in the caudal vertebrae of

the embryos compared to those incubated at 15 °C

(Dionísio et al., 2012). Moreover, incubation of yel-

low croaker (Larimichthys crocea) at temperatures

above and below (33 °C and 15°c, respectively) their

optimum temperature (22 °C) resulted in a 100%

deformity rate at hatch. These deformities included

fin membrane decay, missing, bent, or decaying

tails, and spinal deformity (Figure 1; Tian et al,

2022).

Figure 1: Morphology of normal (A) and deformed (B – D) Yellow croaker (Larimichthys crocea) larvae taken from Tian et al (2022).

Embryos were exposed to seven different temperatures (15°C, 18°C, 21°C, 24°C, 27°C, 30°C, and 33°C) and observed until

hatch. Embryos incubated at temperatures close to the optimal temperature of 22 °C (21 °C and 24 °C, respectively) had the

highest hatching success rate and lowest deformity. Embryos incubated at 15 °C and 33 °C had the lowest hatching success

rate and the highest rate of deformity, demonstrating the impacts of extreme temperatures on development and survival.

Higher temperatures are also known to accel-

erate embryonic development, resulting in prema-

ture hatching and smaller fish (Hansen and Falk-Pe-

tersen, 2001). Premature hatching could potentially

impact overall hatching success as the hatching

time may not align with the availability of external

resources such as food (Viader-Guerrero et al., 2021).

However, studies suggest that fish that hatch

L.M.Whitehouse Science Reviews - Biology, 2024, 3(4), 24-30

prematurely may survive longer without the pres-

ence of food, which is likely due to the increased

size of their yolk sacs when compared with fish that

hatched later (Laurel et al., 2008).

Physiological and cellular responses to thermal

stress

Elevated temperatures can also disrupt gene

expression and essential biochemical processes in

embryonic development (Podrabsky and Somero,

2004.) Research has shown that embryonic fish can

activate stress responses that could in theory be di-

recting energy away from other important pro-

cesses, resulting in the development of heightened

stress responses and increased chances of develop-

mental deformities that could impact later survival

(Van de pol et al., 2021).

One of the most universal responses to ther-

mal stress is the heat shock response (HSR; Hu et al.,

2022). This cellular stress response involves in-

creased production of heat shock proteins (hsps),

which under normal conditions help maintain cel-

lular proteostasis. Under stressful conditions, in-

cluding thermal stress, these proteins protect cellu-

lar function by repairing proteins that have been de-

graded and preventing the build-up of non-native

proteins. The HSR is present throughout the life his-

tory of fish, from embryogenesis to adulthood and

may play an important role in the ability of fish to

respond to increasing temperatures (Iwama et al.,

1999). Several studies have shown that hsp levels in-

crease in response to increased temperatures in em-

bryonic fish (Sales et al., 2019; Stefanovic et al., 2016;

Takle et al., 2005; Werner et al., 2001, Werner et al.,

2007; Whitehouse et al., 2017), and the amount of

HSPs present plays an important role in protecting

embryos against damage induced by exposure to

increased temperatures (Mirkes et al., 1999).

In addition to stress responses, increasing

temperatures can also result in physiological adjust-

ments in metabolism, respiration, and immune

function (Little et al., 2020). Research has shown

that the thermal conditions experienced during em-

bryogenesis can influence energy metabolism, im-

pacting oxygen consumption and leading to adjust-

ments in metabolic pathways such as glycolysis and

lipid metabolism. Additionally, temperature has

been shown to have long-term impacts on the ther-

mal optima of enzymes involved in these processes.

For example, zebrafish (Danio rerio) embryos raised

at higher temperatures had increased mitochon-

drial and glycolytic enzyme activity at hatch com-

pared to enzymes raised at optimal temperatures.

This difference persisted into adulthood demon-

strating that developmental environments can have

long-term impacts on metabolic mechanisms

(Schnurr et al., 2014). This notion is further sup-

ported by research that revealed that developmen-

tal temperature affects resting oxygen consumption

in larval zebrafish (Barrionuevo and Burggren,1999)

and resting and maximal oxygen consumption in

larval cyprinids (Wieser and Forstner, 1986; Kauf-

mann and Wieser, 1992).

Constant vs fluctuating temperatures

While most studies have focused on the ef-

fects of rearing fish at constant temperatures, there

is a growing body of research that is examining the

impact of heat shock events or diel cycles that ex-

pose developing fish to short bursts of increased

temperatures. Fluctuating or cycling temperatures

more closely mimic the natural environment as fish

developing in the wild experience natural fluctua-

tions because of seasonal variations. These fluctua-

tions are expected to increase because of climate

change. Moreover, anthropogenic activity such as

the release of thermal plumes from nuclear power

plants exposes embryos in their vicinity to frequent

temperature spikes (Reutter and Herdendorf, 1976.).

Research has shown that regular exposure to

temperatures above a fish’s optimal range can aid

in increasing thermotolerance and survival (Bilyk et

al., 2012; Grinder et al., 2020; Morgan et al., 2018).

For example, exposing juvenile Atlantic salmon

(Salmo salar) to one diel cycle increased their Criti-

cal Thermal Maxima (CTMax; Corey et al., 2017), a

measure used to assess thermotolerance in fish

(Becker and Genoway, 1979). Moreover, Colorado

Squawfish (Ptychocheilus Lucius) exposed to fluctu-

ating temperatures during development had a 10 –

30% increased chance of survival post-hatch com-

pared to those reared at control temperatures (Best-

gen and Williams, 2011).

Lim et al (2019) demonstrated that exposure

to temperature spikes had no impact on the devel-

opment of lake whitefish (Coregonus clupeaformis).

Exposing embryos to a + 3°C spike in temperature

for 1 hour, three times a week had little impact on

hatch timing, mortality, or yolk sac absorption.

Moreover, exposure to fluctuations in temperature

during development appeared to have no impact on

developmental processes. In contrast, Artic charr

Science Reviews - Biology, 2024, 3(4), 24-30 L.M.Whitehouse

(Salvelinus alpinus) exposed to +5 °C heat shocks for

24 hours, a total of seven times during embryogen-

esis displayed smaller body size at hatch and were

less social than their counterparts raised at constant

temperatures. Additionally, the fish exposed to heat

shocks during embryogenesis had an accelerated

growth rate and higher body condition compared to

the control group (Lubin et al., 2024). Together,

these results highlight the importance of the dura-

tion of such fluctuations and the fact that any ob-

served changes due to temperature, can be species-

specific.

Conclusions

Climate change is predicted to increase global

water temperatures and extreme weather events,

resulting in temperature fluctuations that are out-

side optimal developmental temperatures for fish

species globally. Temperature can impact fish de-

velopment in several ways, increasing growth rates

and reducing time to hatch, altering phenotypes,

and activating stress responses. Moreover,

temperature spikes that occur in areas where fish

are already surviving at the edge of their thermal

range could result in temperatures that the embryos

are not able to withstand.

Changes in developmental trajectories and al-

tered phenotypes could result in emerging fish that

have developed abnormalities that impact their

chances of long-term survival or could, on the other

hand, result in phenotypes that are better suited to

environments that are less stable than those the fish

historically experienced. As temperature impacts a

wide range of developmental, physiological, and

cellular processes, it is difficult to predict how a fish

species will respond, especially during those sensi-

tive early life stages.

Understanding the impacts of temperature on

developing fish is important for predicting how fish

recruitment and population levels will be impacted

by climate change. Moreover, this can help inform

conservation plans for wild fish populations and

management strategies of global fisheries and aqua-

culture.

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Conflict of Interest

The author declares that there is no conflict of interest.