Saboor Ahmad, Shufa Xu Science Reviews - Biology, 2023, 2(3), 8 - 17

Emerging Trends of Human Consumption of Insects

and Their Future Conservation

Saboor Ahmad, PhD

and Shufa Xu, PhD

1,*

State Key Laboratory of Resource Insects, The Institute of Apicultural Research, Chinese Academy of Agricul-

tural Sciences, Beijing 100093, China

*Corresponding author: Professor Dr. Shufa Xu, xushufa@caas.cn

https://doi.org/10.57098/SciRevs.Biology.2.3.2

Received September 08, 2023. Revised October 27, 2023. Accepted October 30, 2023. Published online October 31, 2023.

Abstract: In recent years, there has been a notable surge in the global interest surrounding the consumption of

insects, known as entomophagy. This trend is propelled by its potential to address various pressing challenges.

Entomophagy is deeply rooted in many cultures historically and is regarded as a sustainable solution to

contemporary problems such as food security, environmental sustainability, and public health. In this context,

this paper explores the emerging trends in human insect consumption and underscores conservation's pivotal

role in securing the future of edible insects. This study unveils the multifaceted benefits of entomophagy by

emphasizing the cultural significance of insects as a food source, their environmental advantages, and their

potential to improve nutrition and reduce the ecological footprint of food production. Notably, various insects

such as crickets, grasshoppers, termites, mealworms, and silkworm provide the primary sources of the human

diet, including proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals. Simultaneously, this review sheds light on the challenges

posed by overexploitation, and habitat destruction, necessitating robust strategies for insect conservation. The

paper advocates for sustainable harvesting, habitat restoration, public education and awareness, and innovative

market strategies as critical tools for preserving insect biodiversity while promoting responsible insect

consumption. Ultimately, entomophagy and insect conservation convergence presents an intriguing paradigm

for a more sustainable and resilient global food system.

Keywords: Entomophagy, food security, nutritional supplements, conservation strategies, edible insects

Introduction

Numerous forecasts indicate that the population is

expected to surpass 9 billion by 2050, globally . The

growing population necessitates a nearly twofold

increase in current food production . Moreover, en-

vironmental degradation and climate change result-

ing from industrialization also adversely impact

food productivity . Insects, those tiny, often misun-

derstood creatures that share our planet, have been

a part of human diets for centuries in various cul-

tures across the globe . According to the 2013

FAO/WUR report on edible insects, which states

that approximately two billion people are estimated

to consume insects . Recently, there has been an in-

creasing fascination with consuming insects as a

sustainable and nourishing dietary option . This

emerging trend, entomophagy, promises to address

many of the challenges associated with traditional

livestock production, from environmental sustaina-

bility to global food security . Moreover, edible in-

sects represent another option, contributing to food

security, particularly in Africa, where insect con-

sumption has a rich historical tradition . In addition,

edible insects represent a rich protein, fats, vitamins,

and minerals reservoir . Crickets and grasshoppers,

in particular, stand out for their high protein con-

tent, with edible insects typically containing be-

tween 35 to 60 g protein/ 100 g or 10 to 25 g/100 g

of dry and fresh weight, respectively .

In many regions, insects have a long history of be-

ing culturally accepted as a food source . They offer

Science Reviews - Biology, 2023, 2(3), 8 – 17 Saboor Ahmad, Shufa Xu

significant nutritional benefits for human consump-

tion . Europe and the United States are witnessing

the most rapid growth in the edible insect industry,

driven in part by a trend toward reduced meat con-

sumption . Despite the numerous benefits, several

obstacles persist in developing insect-based foods

due to their divergence from conventional Western

dietary habits . The field of insect foods is currently

in a transitional phase, with a promising approach

involving the fusion of protein-processing technol-

ogy with insects to create novel food products.

Given the current scenario of a rapidly increasing

global population, the challenge lies in achieving ef-

ficient and sustainable land use for agriculture

while conserving biodiversity . Extensive scientific

research and conservation efforts over the years

have underscored that habitat loss, degradation,

and the impacts of climate change are the primary

stressors affecting insects and various other ecolog-

ical groups .

For centuries, indigenous cultures across South

America, Europe, Asia, and Africa have incorpo-

rated various insect species into their diets . Moreo-

ver, 2,000 insect species are consumed in 113 coun-

tries . To provide a specific example, a survey con-

ducted in Thailand, identified a staggering insect

species (164) being traded as food . Among these,

the most frequently consumed insects include bee-

tles, bees, caterpillars, ants, grasshoppers, crickets,

and locusts . In regions like Zambia, Zimbabwe, and

Nigeria, edible insects have become readily availa-

ble in open markets and school cafeterias, establish-

ing a profitable industry . Remarkably, insects con-

tribute up to 50% of the dietary protein intake, and

their market value surpasses other protein sources .

The exploration of emerging trends in human con-

sumption of insects and their future conservation is

paramount due to its potential to address pressing

global challenges. With a growing global popula-

tion and increasing strain on conventional livestock

production systems, entomophagy offers a sustain-

able alternative source of protein that is highly effi-

cient in resource utilization. Understanding and

promoting insect consumption can significantly

contribute to mitigating the environmental impacts

of traditional livestock farming, including green-

house gas emissions and deforestation while

providing a nutritious and culturally rich food

source. Moreover, as the practice gains traction, it

raises vital questions about conserving insect

species and their ecosystems, as overharvesting and

habitat destruction could threaten biodiversity.

Therefore, delving into these emerging trends is the

key to a more sustainable, diverse, and resilient fu-

ture for our diets and the planet. Thus, this review

highlights the prevailing trends concerning the uti-

lization of insects as food resources within con-

sumer behavior, industry practices, academic re-

search and their conservation.

Nutritional value of insects as food resources

Beyond their environmental advantages, insects

also offer a range of nutritional benefits (Van Huis

and Oonincx, 2017). Insects boast substantial pro-

tein content, ranging from 35% to 61%, and notable

lipid levels fall between 13% and 33% (Ojha et al.,

2021). Furthermore, insects contain a noteworthy

quantity of "animal" fiber in the form of insoluble

chitin. In addition to their macronutrient content,

certain insect species are recognized for their abun-

dant mineral and vitamin profiles (Ojha et al., 2021).

For instance, crickets are a good source of protein,

containing all nine essential amino acids (Mafu et

al., 2022). They are also rich in B vitamins, iron, and

zinc (Figure 1). In addition to being nutritious, in-

sects are low in fat, making them an attractive op-

tion for those seeking a lean protein source. Edible

insects are noteworthy for their potential health ad-

vantages, primarily attributed to their abundant

content of vitamin B12, essential amino acids, iron,

dietary fiber, zinc, omega-3 and 6, fatty acids, as

well as antioxidants (Nowakowski et al., 2022) (Ta-

ble 1). Recent reports highlight the utilization of

palm weevil larvae as an ingredient in snacks,

aimed at augmenting the snacks' protein and min-

eral content owing to the larvae's exceptional nutri-

tional value (Akande et al., 2020). Furthermore,

cookies containing palm weevil larvae have been

shown to possess enhanced nutritional profiles

while also receiving commendable sensory evalua-

tion scores and widespread acceptance (Ayensu et

al., 2019). Specifically, Cirina butyrospermi has the

potential to serve as a valuable source of crucial pol-

yunsaturated fatty acids, offering numerous health

advantages, and its substantial protein content un-

derscores the significance of giving this species

greater recognition in nutritional research

(Anankware et al., 2021). Incorporating edible in-

sects into human nutrition holds the potential for a

wide range of advantages (Tang et al., 2019),

Saboor Ahmad, Shufa Xu Science Reviews - Biology, 2023, 2(3), 8 – 17

encompassing reduced greenhouse gas emissions,

decreased land and water use in agriculture, better

management and prevention of chronic diseases

such as cancer, diabetes, and cardiovascular condi-

tions, and enhanced immune system function

(Nowakowski et al., 2022). Moreover, insects con-

tain bioactive compounds that could mitigate

health hazards. The safety risks of insect consump-

tion are minimal primarily linked to allergenic con-

cerns (Van Huis et al., 2021).

Table 1. Different edible insects and their nutritional value

Insects

species

Proteins

Carbohy-

drates

Fats

Lipids

Vitamins

Minerals

Reference

Crickets

55-73%

2.5-15%

58%

10-23%

A, B, C, D. E

and K

Macro- and

micro-mineral

elements, in-

cluding Ca, K,

P, Mg, Fe, Na,

Zn, Mn, and

Macro- and micro-

mineral elements,

including Ca, K, P,

Mg, Fe, Na, Zn,

Mn, and Cu.

Meal-

worms

51-53%

11.5%

28-33%

40-44%

B12, Niacin

and as high in

riboflavin,

pyridoxine,

folate

Zn, Mg, and

(Mariod, 2020,

Grau et al., 2017,

Alves et al., 2016,

Son et al., 2021)

Grass-

hoppers

36-40%

2.6-3.9%

48.2%

89.4%

Niacin, reti-

nol, ribofla-

vin, B5, B6,

B9, and B12

Ca, Mg, K, Na,

P, Fe, Zn, Mn,

and Cu,

(Ssepuuya et al.,

2017, John N Kin-

yuru, 2010,

Kababu et al.,

2023)

Termites

29.75-

56.44%

34.84-

67.09%

44.82-

47.31%

1.80-

2.90%

A and C

Ca, Na, Mg,

Zn, Fe, Cu, and

(Ntukuyoh, 2012,

Kinyuru et al.,

2013)

Silk-

worm

48-

94.98%

230

kcl/100 g

12.1-

35.7%

25-32.2%

A, B1, B2, B3,

B5, B7, B9,

B12, C, and E

P, Fe, Ca, Zn,

Mn, and Cr

(Hăbeanu et al.,

2023, Mahanta et

al., 2023, Paul and

Dey, 2014)

Food safety from edible insect

Humans have been consuming insects for centuries

and surprisingly, the scientific literature is scarce

addressing the food safety aspects of insect con-

sumption (Mézes and Erdélyi, 2020). While the nu-

tritional benefits of edible insects are evident, it is

essential to acknowledge that concerns regarding

food safety, including microorganisms, allergies,

and toxicity, may become more prominent among

consumers. In terms of allergies, certain edible in-

sects have been found to contain proteins that can

trigger allergic reactions in individuals who are also

allergic to arachnids and crustaceans due to cross-

reactivity (Ribeiro et al., 2018). Specific heavy met-

als raise concerns within the context of insect

Science Reviews - Biology, 2023, 2(3), 8 – 17 Saboor Ahmad, Shufa Xu

consumption. Cadmium levels are of particular

concern in black soldier flies, while arsenic is a no-

table issue regarding yellow mealworm larvae (van

der Fels-Klerx et al., 2018). The investigated myco-

toxins do not tend to accumulate significantly in

these insects. Additionally, it has been observed

that insect specimens may occasionally contain vet-

erinary drugs, residues of pesticides, hormones, di-

oxins, and PCBs (van der Fels-Klerx et al., 2018,

Meyer et al., 2021). Moreover, five categories of bio-

logical risk factors, ten chemical risk factors, and

thirteen physical risk factors have also been recog-

nized (Gałęcki et al., 2023). These risk maps are val-

uable tools for pinpointing potential hazards, such

as foodborne pathogens, within diverse insect spe-

cies and insect-based food products (Gałęcki et al.,

2023) as well as necessitating a comprehensive as-

sessment of allergenic risks before their safe intro-

duction into the food market (Ribeiro et al., 2021).

However, there are different other routes of con-

tamination as indicated in Figure 1 (Gałęcki et al.,

2023).

Figure 1: Schematic diagram of edible insects.

Promoting food safety and hygiene practices

throughout the entire edible insect supply chain, in-

cluding wild harvesting, is crucial to guarantee the

availability of this highly nutritious and resource-

efficient food to consumers without posing any

health risks (Imathiu, 2020). Another pressing con-

cern is the need for more regulations governing the

edible insect supply chain, a deficiency prevalent in

numerous countries, particularly developing na-

tions. Addressing this issue urgently can enhance

consumer trust and facilitate the international trade

of this commodity (Imathiu, 2020). Furthermore, in-

sect processing must adhere to the Hazard Analysis

Critical Control Point (HACCP) principles and its

prerequisite programs. Strict adherence to these

guidelines will ensure the production of safe prod-

ucts, enabling consumers to harness the outstand-

ing nutritional benefits of insects and their derived

products.

Delicious and sustainable: Persuasive strategies to

encourage insect consumption:

Strategies to persuade consumers to embrace insect

consumption encompass highlighting the nutri-

tional adequacy of insects, incorporating insects

discreetly into familiar products (Musundire et al.,

Saboor Ahmad, Shufa Xu Science Reviews - Biology, 2023, 2(3), 8 – 17

2021). Enhancing the flavor profile of insect-based

products. Offering consumers, a captivating taste

experience and promoting insect-based products

primarily based on taste (Kröger et al., 2022). Fur-

nishing comprehensive information about insect

products, acknowledging that sustainability may

not be the most compelling factor. Leveraging ce-

lebrity endorsements to endorse the product

(Cuomo et al., 2019). Tailoring marketing efforts to-

wards specific demographics, such as thrill-seekers

or children. Devising market strategies, including

using stylish imagery and selecting supermarkets

for distribution (van Huis and Rumpold, 2023). In

addition, uncover genuine health advantages, delve

into authentic benefits, investigate ways to enhance

insect farming and food processing methods, ana-

lyze cultural obstacles to widespread acceptance,

and tackle pertinent food regulations and compli-

ance issues (Mason et al., 2018). Moreover, the reg-

ulations do not permit the consumption of all po-

tential insect species as food and animal feed (Läht-

eenmäki-Uutela et al., 2021). Governments are com-

mitted to guaranteeing food and feed safety, and

each nation has its distinct sets of rules and proce-

dures to achieve this objective (Lähteenmäki-Uutela

et al., 2021). Nevertheless, countries' diverse regula-

tory requirements and disparities create complexi-

ties in developing international marketing strate-

gies for insect-based products (Lähteenmäki-Uutela

et al., 2021).

Strategies for insect Conservation:

There are reasons for optimism regarding insect

conservation. Innovative approaches, modern tech-

nology, and improved data access enhance our un-

derstanding of global insect biodiversity. An ex-

panding community of researchers from various

fields sheds light on how environmental factors and

human activities affect insect species and ecosys-

tems (Didham et al., 2020). The main strategies for

insects conservation (Figure 1) are given below:

1. Habitat Restoration:

Implementing regulations on insect harvesting to

prevent overexploitation:

This involves creating and enforcing rules and

guidelines that control the harvesting of insects .

The aim is to ensure that the collection of insects is

within sustainable levels, thereby preventing their

populations from being depleted . Meanwhile,

certain wild edible insects can be considered pests

to valuable crops. Therefore, harvesting and

incorporating these edible insect pests into our diet

and using them for therapeutic applications could

represent a noteworthy advancement in biological

pest control .

Promoting responsible harvesting practices

among insect farmers:

Encouraging those involved in insect farming to

adopt responsible and sustainable methods when

collecting insects . This can include guidelines on

harvesting techniques, timing, and quotas to

maintain healthy insect populations . Moreover,

preserving traditional methods of conservation,

harvesting, and consumption, establishing large-

scale captive breeding programs, and fortifying

resilient value chains to encourage the participation

of local communities .

2. Habitat Restoration:

Efforts to restore and protect natural habitats that

support insect populations:

This strategy focuses on rehabilitating and preserv-

ing the natural environments where insects live and

thrive . Restoring these habitats provides insects

with the necessary ecosystems to sustain their pop-

ulations.

Promoting urban green spaces to create insect-

friendly environments:

Green spaces with diverse vegetation and suitable

habitats can support insect populations in urban ar-

eas. These spaces can act as refuges for insects in en-

vironments dominated by human development .

3. Education and Awareness:

Raising public awareness about the importance of

insect conservation:

Educating the general public about why insects are

crucial to ecosystems and the environment. This

awareness can increase support for conservation ef-

forts and a better understanding of insects' role in

our world.

Educating consumers on responsible insect con-

sumption:

Furthermore, to foster the expansion of the edible

insect industry, engaging in consumer education

and implementing effective marketing tactics is es-

sential . This also includes knowing which insects

are safe to consume and how to do so without harm-

ing the species or their ecosystems.

Science Reviews - Biology, 2023, 2(3), 8 – 17                                                                                        Saboor Ahmad, Shufa Xu                                                                                                          
13 
 
 
These strategies collectively aim to strike a balance 
between  human  activities,  including  insect  con-
sumption,  and  the  preservation  of  insect  popula-
tions  and  their  habitats.  By  implementing  these 
measures,  we  can  help  ensure  insects'  long-term 
survival and well-being while harnessing their po-
tential benefits sustainably. 
 
Conclusions 
In conclusion, the emerging trends in human con-
sumption of insects represent a promising avenue 
for  addressing  pressing  global  challenges,  from 
food  security  and  environmental  sustainability  to 
nutrition. However, as we embrace entomophagy, 
we must be equally committed to conserving insect 
species and their habitats. By implementing sustain-
able  harvesting  practices,  restoring  critical  insect 
ecosystems, and raising public awareness, we can 
ensure that this culinary evolution remains in har-
mony with the imperative of preserving insect bio-
diversity. The future of insect consumption lies not 
only in the nutritional and ecological benefits it of-
fers but also in our ability to strike a responsible bal-
ance between our appetites and the conservation of 
these invaluable creatures. 
 
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